Ethanol - Overview

Ethanol is ethyl alcohol, also called grain alcohol. Chemically, fuel ethanol is identical—-albeit in a purer form--to the alcohol we drink. To make sure fuel ethanol isn’t used for frat house punch, it’s denatured, which means it is mixed with another chemical (usually gasoline) that renders it undrinkable.

Where Does Ethanol Come From?

Ethanol comes from one of these three raw material groups:

• starchy crops, such as corn
• sugary crop, like fruit or sugarcane
• cellulosic plants, such as trees or wild grasses

While the process for making ethanol varies somewhat depending on the feedstock, the basic steps are the same.

1. The feedstock is milled or crushed, and may be treated with chemicals or enzymes. This step is designed to yield as much fermentable sugar as possible from the feedstock.
2. Yeast is added to the prepared feedstock and sugars are converted to alcohol.
3. The alcohol is extracted from the mixture by boiling it in a distiller.

Nearly all the ethanol made in the United States uses corn for a feedstock. Brazil, the world’s largest ethanol producer, makes ethanol from sugarcane. Other countries, such as France, use sugar beets and wheat as their primary feedstocks. With current technology, it is easiest and most efficient to produce ethanol from sugar crops, since the sugars in these feedstocks are readily available for fermentation. In the future, advances in ethanol production may increase yields and decrease the cost of producing ethanol from cellulosic material.

The Blends

Most likely, you're using ethanol in your car without even knowing it. In many regions, small amounts of ethanol are blended with gasoline to reduce emissions. Mixtures as high as E10 (10 percent ethanol and 90 percent gasoline) are safe for use in most vehicles, including hybrid models such as the Toyota Prius and Honda Civic Hybrid.

Much of the news lately has been about fuel blends that have higher ethanol content. The most common is E85 (85 percent ethanol and 15 percent gasoline), which only can be used in vehicles that are designed for that fuel. Currently, no hybrid models accept E85 fuel, but more than 20 E85-compatible cars and trucks (called “flexible-fuel vehicles”) are available now from four major manufacturers

Why Make Compost

Compost is one of nature's best mulches and soil amendments, and you can use it instead of commercial fertilizers. Best of all, compost is cheap. You can make it without spending a cent. Using compost improves soil structure, texture, and aeration and increases the soil's water-holding capacity. Compost loosens clay soils and helps sandy soils retain water. Adding compost improves soil fertility and stimulates healthy root development in plants. The organic matter provided in compost provides food for microorganisms, which keeps the soil in a healthy, balanced condition. Nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus will be produced naturally by the feeding of microorganisms, so few if any soil amendments will need to be added.

Most gardeners have long understood the value of this rich, dark, earthy material in improving the soil and creating a healthful environment for plants. Understanding how to make and use compost is in the public interest, as the problem of waste disposal climbs toward a crisis level. Landfills are brimming, and new sites are not likely to be easily found. For this reason there is an interest in conserving existing landfill space and in developing alternative methods of dealing with waste. Don't throw away materials when you can use them to improve your lawn and garden! Start composting instead.

Our hands our being forced to deal creatively with our own yard waste, as one by one, cities are refusing to haul off our leaves and grass clippings. About one third of the space in landfills is taken up with organic waste from our yards and kitchens, just the type of material that can be used in compost. With a small investment in time, you can contribute to the solution to a community problem, while at the same time enriching the soil and improving the health of the plants on your property.

Want the super quick version of how to make compost? Visit our Composting Tips page.

The Compost Decomposition Process

Compost is the end product of a complex feeding pattern involving hundreds of different organisms, including bacteria, fungi, worms, and insects. What remains after these organisms break down organic materials is the rich, earthy substance your garden will love. Composting replicates nature's natural system of breaking down materials on the forest floor. In every forest, grassland, jungle, and garden, plants die, fall to the ground, and decay. They are slowly dismantled by the small organisms living in the soil. Eventually these plant parts disappear into the brown crumbly forest floor. This humus keeps the soil light and fluffy.

Humus is our goal when we start composting. By providing the right environment for the organisms in the compost pile, it is possible to produce excellent compost. We usually want to organize and hasten Mother Nature's process. By knowing the optimum conditions of heat, moisture, air, and materials, we can speed up the composting process. Besides producing more good soil faster, making the compost faster creates heat which will destroy plant diseases and weed seeds in the pile.

Compost Materials

Almost any organic material is suitable for a compost pile. The pile needs a proper ratio of carbon-rich materials, or "browns," and nitrogen-rich materials, or "greens." Among the brown materials are dried leaves, straw, and wood chips. Nitrogen materials are fresh or green, such as grass clippings and kitchen scraps.

Mixing certain types of materials or changing the proportions can make a difference in the rate of decomposition. Achieving the best mix is more an art gained through experience than an exact science. The ideal ratio approaches 25 parts browns to 1 part greens. Judge the amounts roughly equal by weight. Too much carbon will cause the pile to break down too slowly, while too much nitrogen can cause odor. The carbon provides energy for the microbes, and the nitrogen provides protein.

Leaves represent a large percentage of total yard waste. If you can grind them in a gas or electric chipper shredder or mow over them, they will reduce in size making them easier to store until you can use them in the pile, and they will decompose faster - an issue with larger leaves. They are loaded with minerals brought up from the tree roots and are a natural source of carbon. A few leaf species such as live oak, southern magnolia, and holly trees are too tough and leathery for easy composting. Avoid all parts of the black walnut tree as they contain a plant poison that survives composting. Eucalyptus leaves can be toxic to other plants. And avoid using poison oak, poison ivy, and sumac.

Pine Needles need to be chopped or shredded, as they decompose slowly. They are covered with a thick, waxy coating. In very large quantities, they can acidify your compost, which would be a good thing if you have alkaline soils.

Grass Clippings break down quickly and contain as much nitrogen as manure. Since fresh grass clippings will clump together, become anerobic, and start to smell, mix them with plenty of brown material. If you have a lot of grass clippings to compost, spread them on the driveway or other surface to bake in the sun for at least a day. Once it begins to turn pale or straw-like, it can be used without danger of souring. Avoid grass clippings that contain pesticide or herbicide residue, unless a steady rain has washed the residue from the grass blades.

Kitchen Refuse includes melon rinds, carrot peelings, tea bags, apple cores, banana peels - almost everything that cycles through your kitchen. The average household produces more than 200 pounds of kitchen waste every year. You can successfully compost all forms of kitchen waste. However, meat, meat products, dairy products, and high-fat foods like salad dressings and peanut butter, can present problems. Meat scraps and the rest will decompose eventually, but will smell bad and attract pests. Egg shells are a wonderful addition, but decompose slowly, so should be crushed. All additions to the compost pile will decompose more quickly if they are chopped up some before adding.

To collect your kitchen waste, you can keep a small compost pail in the kitchen to bring to the pile every few days. Keep a lid on the container to discourage insects. When you add kitchen scraps to the compost pile, cover them with about 8" of brown material to reduce visits by flies or critters.

Wood Ashes from a wood burning stove or fireplace can be added to the compost pile. Ashes are alkaline, so add no more than 2 gallon-sized buckets-full to a pile with 3'x3'x3' dimensions. They are especially high in potassium. Don't use coal ashes, as they usually contain large amounts of sulfur and iron that can injure your plants. Used charcoal briquettes don't decay much at all, so it's best not to use them.

Garden Refuse should make the trip to the pile. All of the spent plants, thinned seedlings, and deadheaded flowers can be included. Most weeds and weed seeds are killed when the pile reaches an internal temperature above 130 degrees, but some may survive. To avoid problems don't compost weeds with persistent root systems, and weeds that are going to seed.

Spoiled Hay or Straw makes an excellent carbon base for a compost pile, especially in a place where few leaves are available. Hay contains more nitrogen than straw. They may contain weed seeds, so the pile must have a high interior temperature. The straw's little tubes will also keep the pile breathing.

Manure is one of the finest materials you can add to any compost pile. It contains large amounts of both nitrogen and beneficial microbes. Manure for composting can come from bats, sheep, ducks, pigs, goats, cows, pigeons, and any other vegetarian animal. As a rule of thumb, you should avoid manure from carnivores, as it can contain dangerous pathogens. Most manures are considered "hot" when fresh, meaning it is so rich in nutrients that it can burn the tender roots of young plants or overheat a compost pile, killing off earthworms and friendly bacteria. If left to age a little, however, these materials are fine to use.

Manure is easier to transport and safer to use if it is rotted, aged, or composted before it's used. Layer manure with carbon-rich brown materials such as straw or leaves to keep your pile in balance.

Seaweed is an excellent source of nutrient-rich composting material. Use the hose to wash off the salt before sending it to the compost pile.

The list of organic materials which can be added to the compost pile is long. There are industrial and commercial waste products you may have access to in abundance. The following is a partial list: corncobs, cotton waste, restaurant or farmer's market scraps, grapevine waste, sawdust, greensand, hair, hoof and horn meal, hops, peanut shells, paper and cardboard, rock dust, sawdust, feathers, cottonseed meal, blood meal, bone meal, citrus wastes, coffee, alfalfa, and ground seashells.

Following is a chart listing common composting materials

Type of Material Use it? Carbon/ Nitrogen Details Algae, seaweed and lake moss Yes N Good nutrient source. Ashes from coal or charcoal No n/a May contain materials bad for plants. Ashes from untreated, unpainted wood Careful Neutral Fine amounts at most. Can make the pile too alkaline and suppress composting. Beverages, kitchen rinse water Yes Neutral Good to moisten the middle of the pile. Don't over-moisten the pile. Bird droppings Careful N May contain weed seeds or disease organisms. Cardboard Yes C Shred into small pieces if you use it. Wetting it makes it easier to tear. If you have a lot, consider recycling instead. Cat droppings or cat litter No n/a May contain disease organisms. Avoid. Coffee ground and filters Yes N Worms love coffee grounds and coffee filters. Compost activator Not required, but ok. Neutral You don't really need it, but it doesn't hurt. Cornstalks, corn cobs Yes C Best if shredded and mixed well with nitrogen rich materials. Diseased plants Careful N If your pile doesn't get hot enough, it might not kill the organisms, so be careful. Let it cure several months, and don't use resulting compost near the type of plant that was diseased. Dog droppings No n/a Avoid. Dryer lint Yes C Compost away! Moistening helps. Eggshells Yes O Break down slowly. Crushing shells helps. Fish scraps No n/a Can attract rodents and cause a stinky pile. Hair Yes N Scatter so it isn't in clumps. Lime No n/a Can kill composting action. Avoid. Manure (horse, cow, pig, sheep, goat, chicken, rabbit) Yes N Great source of nitrogen. Mix with carbon rich materials so it breaks down better. Meat, fat, grease, oils, bones No n/a Avoid. Milk, cheese, yogurt Careful Neutral Put it deep in the pile to avoid attracting animals. Newspaper Yes C Shred it so it breaks down easier. It is easy to add too much newspaper, so recycle instead if you have a lot. Don't add slick colored pages. Oak leaves Yes C Shredding leaves helps them break down faster. They decompose slowly. Acidic. Sawdust and wood shavings (untreated wood) Yes C You'll need a lot of nitrogen materials to make up for the high carbon content. Don't use too much, and don't use treated woods. Pine needles and cones Yes C Don't overload the pile. Also acidic and decomposes slowly. Weeds Careful N Dry them out on the pavement, then add later. Sod Careful N Make sure the pile is hot enough, so grass doesn't continue growing.

Compost Site Selection

Any pile of organic matter will eventually rot, but a well-chosen site can speed up the process. Look for a level, well-drained area. If you plan to add kitchen scraps, keep it accessible to the back door. Don't put it so far away you'll neglect the pile. In cooler latitudes, keep the pile in a sunny spot to trap solar heat. Look for some shelter to protect the pile from freezing cold winds which could slow down the decaying process. In warm, dry latitudes, shelter the pile in a shadier spot so it doesn't dry out too quickly.

Build the pile over soil or lawn rather than concrete or asphalt, to take advantage of the earthworms, beneficial microbes, and other decomposers, which will migrate up and down as the seasons change. Uncovered soil also allows for drainage. If tree roots are extending their roots into the pile, turn it frequently so they can't make headway.

Look for a spot that allows you to compost discretely, especially if you have neighboring yards in close proximity. Aim for distance and visual barriers between the pile and the neighbors.

Seasonal Schedule for Composting

An effective storage system is the key to successfully using the materials each season provides. In the fall, collect and shred fallen leaves. The best use for them now is as mulch for trees, shrubs, and garden beds. Excess leaves can be stored - leaves from 100 bags can be shredded and put in a 4'x4'x4' container. Some decomposition will take place over the winter, but not a significant amount. Continue to put kitchen scraps in the pile, but it's not necessary to turn in cold climes. If you want your compost pile to stay active during the winter, you'll want an enclosed bin with insulated sides. A black bin situated in a sunny spot can help trap solar radiation during cold spells. Keep the pile as large as possible so that heat generated from decomposition will endure. You can also stack bales of straw along the sides of your bin to help retain the heat.

In areas with a cold winter, spring is the best time to start the compost pile in earnest. There's an abundance of grass clippings and trimmings. Summer is the time the compost pile is working at its peak range of decomposition, especially if it has been turned once or twice. Cover and store the finished compost, or use it, and start another batch. With enough organic waste, you can produce several batches of highly managed compost during the summer.

Making Compost

Compost can range from passive - allowing the materials to sit and rot on their own - to highly managed. Whenever you intervene in the process, you're managing the compost. How you compost is determined by your goal. If you're eager to produce as much compost as possible to use regularly in your garden, you may opt for a more hands-on method of composting. If your goal is to dispose of yard waste, a passive method is your answer.

Passive composting involves the least amount of time and energy on your part. This is done by collecting organic materials in a freestanding pile. It might take a long time (a year or two), but eventually organic materials in any type of a pile will break down into finished compost. More attractive than a big pile of materials sitting in your yard is a 3-sided enclosure made of fencing, wire, or concrete blocks, which keeps the pile neater and less unsightly. Add grass clippings, leaves, and kitchen scraps (always cover these with 8" of other material). The pile will shrink quickly as the materials compress and decompose. Wait a year or two before checking the bottom of the bin for finished compost. When it's ready, shovel the bottom section into a wheelbarrow and add it to your garden beds. Continue to add greens and browns to have a good supply of finished compost at the ready. After the first few years, most simple piles produce a few cubic feet of finished compost yearly.

Managed composting involves active participation, ranging from turning the pile occasionally to a major commitment of time and energy. If you use all the techniques of managing the pile, you can get finished compost in 3-4 weeks. Choose the techniques that reflect how much you want to intervene in the decomposition process and that will be a function of how fast you want to produce compost.

The speed with which you produce finished compost will be determined by how you collect materials, whether you chop them up, how you mix them together, and so on. Achieving a good balance of carbon and nitrogen is easier if you build the pile all at once. Layering is traditional, but mixing the materials works as well.

Shredded organic materials heat up rapidly, decompose quickly, and produce a uniform compost. The decomposition rate increases with the size of the composting materials. If you want the pile to decay faster, chop up large fibrous materials.

You can add new materials on an ongoing basis to an already established pile. Most single-bin gardeners build an initial pile and add more ingredients on top as they become available.

The temperature of the managed pile is important - it indicates the activity of the decomposition process. The easiest way to track the temperature inside the pile is by feeling it. If it is warm or hot, everything is fine. If it is the same temperature as the outside air, the microbial activity has slowed down and you need to add more nitrogen (green) materials such as grass clippings, kitchen waste, or manure.

Use a compost thermometer to easily see how well your compost is doing. They are inexpensive, and quite convenient to have.

If the pile becomes too dry, the decay process will slow down. Organic waste needs water to decompose. The rule of thumb is to keep the pile as moist as a wrung-out sponge.

If you're building your pile with very wet materials, mix them with dry materials as you build. If all the material is very dry, soak it with a hose as you build. Whenever you turn the pile, check it for moisture and add water as necessary.

Too much water is just as detrimental as the lack of water. In an overly wet pile, water replaces the air, creating an anaerobic environment, slowing decomposition.

Air circulation is an important element in a compost pile. Most of the organisms that decompose organic matter are aerobic - they need air to survive. There are several ways to keep your pile breathing. Try not to use materials that are easily compacted such as ashes or sawdust, without mixing them with a coarser material first. People who build large piles often add tree branches or even ventilation tubes vertically into different parts of the pile, to be shaken occasionally, to maximize air circulation.

A more labor-intensive way to re-oxygenate the pile is to turn the pile by hand, using a large garden fork. The simplest way is to move the material from the pile and restack it alongside. A multiple-bin system makes this efficient, in that you only handle the material once. Otherwise, you can put the material back into the same pile. The object is to end up with the material that was on the outside of the original pile, resting in the middle of the restacked pile. This procedure aerates the pile and will promote uniform decomposition.

This is an excellent tool for aerating and mixing compost.

The following information is for the highly managed pile and the optimum finished compost in the shortest amount of time. Decomposition occurs most efficiently when the temperature inside the pile is between 104 degrees F and 131 degrees F. Compost thermometers are available at garden shops and nurseries. It is best not to turn the pile while it is between these temperatures, but rather when the temperature is below 104 degrees F or above 131 degrees F. This keeps the pile operating at its peak. Most disease pathogens die when exposed to 131 degrees for 10-15 minutes, though some weed seeds are killed only when they're heated to between 140 degrees and 150 degrees. If weed seeds are a problem, let the pile reach 150 degrees during the first heating period, then drop back down to the original temperature range. Maintaining temperatures above 131 degrees can kill the decomposing microbes.

The Compost Bin

Click on photos to get more information and pricing about each compost bin, or visit our online Compost Bin Store.

To save space, hasten decomposition, and keep the yard looking neat, contain the compost in some sort of structure. A wide variety of composting structures can be purchased, or made from a variety of materials. They can be as simple or complex as desired.

Yard wastes can be composted either in simple holding units, where they will sit undisturbed for slow decomposition, or in tumbling compost bins, which produce finished compost as quickly as just a few weeks with a good mix of materials.

Holding units are simple containers used to store garden waste in an organized way until these materials break down. A holding unit is the easiest way to compost. It only requires placing wastes into a pile or bin as they are generated. Non-woody materials such as grass clippings, crop wastes, garden weeds, and leaves work best in these systems. A holding unit can be a cylinder formed of wire (chicken wire is too weak to hold up to the bulk), or wood scraps. Openings in the sides need to be large enough to permit plenty of air, but small enough to contain the materials that are composting.

Turning units are typically a series of bins used for building and turning active compost piles. A turning unit allows wastes to be conveniently mixed for aeration on a regular basis.

Read about why I like compost tumblers.

Browse garden tools, electric tillers, reel mowers, compost tumblers at Clean Air Gardening.

Home gardeners are constantly inventing creative and inexpensive ways to hold their compost - for example, bins made from wire mesh or from shipping pallets.

Some gardeners lash together four pallets, leaving one corner loosely attached to act as a door. Others install posts in four corners, nail the pallets to the posts to form three sides of the bin, and wire the last pallet with some slack to allow access.

Make a simple, three-sided bin by stacking concrete or cinder blocks. Leave the fourth side open for turning the pile or for access to the finished compost.

Renewed interest in recycling has prompted a great increase in the types of composting systems available commercially. Consider the advantages and disadvantages of each type of compost bin to choose the best one for your yard, budget, and life-style. They range from wire containers to plastic bins and tumblers. Composters are available online from CleanAirGardening.com and from our online composter store.

Learn about making compost tea on this page.

Troubleshooting

Making compost is really quite easy, but having too much of a certain material or letting the compost get too wet or too dry can cause problems.

Troubleshooting Composting Problems

Problems Possible Causes Solution Damp and warm only in the middle of the pile. Pile could be too small, or cold weather might have slowed composting If you are only composting in piles, make sure your pile is at least 3 feet high and 3 feet wide. With a bin, the pile doesn't need to be so large. Nothing is happening.Pile doesn't seem to be heating up at all. 1. Not enough nitrogen 2. Not enough oxygen 3. Not enough moisture 4. Cold weather? 5. Compost is finished. 1. Make sure you have enough nitrogen rich sources like manure, grass clippings or food scraps. 2. Mix up the pile so it can breathe. 3. Mix up the pile and water it with the hose so that there is some moisture in the pile. A completely dry pile doesn't compost. 4. Wait for spring, cover the pile, or use a bin. Matted leaves or grass clippings aren't decomposing. Poor aeration, or lack of moisture. Avoid thick layers of just one material. Too much of something like leaves, paper or grass clippings don't break down well. Break up the layers and mix up the pile so that there is a good mix of materials. Shred any big material that isn't breaking down well. Stinks like rancid butter, vinegar or rotten eggs. Not enough oxygen, or the pile is too wet, or compacted. Mix up the pile so that it gets some aeration and can breathe. Add course dry materials like straw, hay or leaves to soak up excess moisture. If smell is too bad, add dry materials on top and wait until it dries out a bit before you mix the pile. Odor like ammonia. Not enough carbon. Add brown materials like leaves, straw, hay, shredded newspaper, etc. Attracts rodents, flies, or other animals. Inappropriate materials (like meat, oil, bones), or the food-like material is too close to the surface of the pile. Bury kitchen scraps near the center of the pile. Don't add inappropriate materials to compost. Switch to a rodent-proof closed bin. Attracts insects, millipedes, slugs, etc. This is normal composting, and part of the natural process. Not a problem. Fire ant problems. Pile could be too dry, not hot enough, or has kitchen scraps too close to the surface. Make sure your pile has a good mix of materials to heat up, and keep it moist enough.

Vermicomposting: Composting with Worms

Vermicomposting, or worm composting, is different than traditional composting.

Worm composting is a process that uses red earthworms, also commonly called redworms, to consume organic waste, producing castings (an odor-free compost product for use as mulch), soil conditioner, and topsoil additive. Naturally occurring organisms, such as bacteria and millipedes, also assist in the aerobic degradation of the organic material. Commercially available worm composting bins make it fairly simple to do your own vermicomposting indoors.

You can learn more about vermicomposting on our worm composting page.

Using Compost

Finished compost is dark brown, crumbly, and is earthy-smelling. Small pieces of leaves or other ingredients may be visible. If the compost contains many materials which are not broken down, it is only partly decomposed. This product can be used as a mulch, but adding partly decomposed compost to the soil can reduce the amount of nitrogen available to the plants. The microorganisms will continue to do the work of decomposing, but will use soil nitrogen for their own growth, restricting the nitrogen's availability to plants growing nearby.

Allow partly decomposed compost particles to break down further or separate them out before using compost on growing plants. Or add extra nitrogen such as manure, to ensure that growing plants will not suffer from a nitrogen deficiency. Compost is great for flower gardening, herb gardening, organic lawn care and vegetable gardening.

Compost serves primarily as a soil conditioner, whether it's spread in a layer on the soil surface or is dug in. A garden soil regularly amended with compost is better able to hold air and water, drains more efficiently, and contains a nutrient reserve that plants can draw on. The amended soil also tends to produce plants with fewer insect and disease problems. The compost encourages a larger population of beneficial soil microorganisms, which control harmful microorganisms. It also fosters healthy plant growth, and healthy plants are better able to resist pests.

One inch thick is enough to spread on your garden beds. Compost continues to decompose, so eventually the percentage of organic matter in the soil begins to decline. In northern climates, compost is mostly decomposed after two years in the soil. In southern climates, it disappears even faster and should be replenished every year.

To bolster poor soil with little organic matter, spread 2 to 3 inches of compost over a newly dug surface. Then work the compost into the top 6 inches of earth.

A garden soil that has been well mulched and amended periodically requires only about a ½ inch layer of compost yearly to maintain its quality.

Some people recommend late fall as a good time to spread compost over a garden bed, and cover it with a winter mulch, such as chopped leaves. By spring, soil organisms will have worked the compost into the soil. Others recommend spreading compost two weeks before planting time in the spring. There is really no wrong time to spread it. The benefits remain the same.

If your supply of compost is really limited, consider side-dressing, a way to use compost sparingly by strategically placing it around certain plants or along certain rows. This is best done in late spring and early summer so that the rapidly growing plants can derive the maximum benefit from the compost.

To side-dress a plant, work the compost into the soil around the plant, starting about an inch from the stem, out to the drip line, taking care not to disturb the roots. For shallow rooted plants, leave the compost on the soil surface. A 2" layer works best when left on top.

For new lawns, a 2 to 3" layer of compost is best when planting. Once the new lawn is established, a ¼ to ½" layer yearly will maintain the quality of the soil.

An existing lawn top-dressed with a ½" layer of compost every year or two will be healthier than an unamended lawn. Fall is the best time to apply the compost, although an application in early spring is almost as effective.

A compost mulch can benefit trees and shrubs just as it does other plants. Spread a ½" to 1" layer of compost on the bare soil under the tree as far as the drip line. Then cover with a 2-3" layer of some other kind of organic mulch, such as chopped leaves or pine needles. The mulch will hold the compost in place and keep it from drying out.

Adding compost to the planting hole of small perennial plants is valuable, particularly perennial food plants. Annuals will also benefit from a dose of compost at planting time.

Compost is the ultimate garden fertilizer. It contains virtually all the nutrients a living plant needs and delivers them in a slow-release manner over a period of years. Compost made with a wide variety of ingredients will provide an even more nutritious meal to your growing plants.

Compost is the best material available to enliven your soil no matter where you live. Farmers around the world will testify that healthier soil grows healthier plants that naturally resist disease, insects, and other environmental pressures. Adding compost to your garden is a long-term investment - it becomes a permanent part of the soil structure, helping to feed future plantings in years to come.

Bonus Page: 50 Organic Gardening Tips
Article: How Humus Improves Your Soil
Article: Composting Methods to Try at Home
Article: Making compost from leaves
Article: How to use hay as mulch for organic gardening
Article: How much mulch do you need for your garden?
Article: Composting with worms
Article: Compost tea information
Article: Compost bins, Compost pails, Compost piles
Browse garden tools, electric tillers, reel mowers, compost tumblers at Clean Air Gardening.

Food versus Fuel

Australia falsely caught up in the debate while the Americans trade blow for blow

By Ian Thomson

The food v fuel debate – whether we eat it or burn it – has been on the biofuels menu in the United States for the best part of 30 years.

Now it has become a hot topic in Australia, as the media seizes on comments from those who say we must choose between fuelling our cars with ethanol or feeding the masses.

It must be said from the outset that the argument has no place in this country. Ethanol production in Australia now and in the future will be relying on molasses, a sugar refining by-product, and grains such as wheat and sorghum as feedstocks. When grain ethanol is made, only the starch – two-thirds of the grain – is converted to ethanol. The other third is left as a valuable high-protein feed supplement.

There is plenty of molasses and grain to go around for the foreseeable future without ethanol production causing any ripples in the pricing pond. The price of wheat has risen of late, but you can put that down to the worst drought in Australia’s history – not biofuel.

The same goes for sugar cane as a feedstock. Australian sugar producers would love to see the price of their product go up so they can plant more cane. But if the price does jump, it won’t be because we’re feeding the cane into ethanol plants. The plants use the by-product molasses to make ethanol.

Any media drum-beating about Australian food prices going through the roof because of the production of biofuels should fall on deaf ears. It’s a non-event now, and is not likely to be cause for concern in the future.

Cost of petrol is a factor
So then, let’s look at what’s happening in the U.S. where the food v fuel debate continues to rage after three decades. Because American ethanol plants are predominately corn consumers, critics have based their attack on the belief that ethanol is solely to blame for rising food prices.

The reality is that the production of ethanol is just one of many factors driving up food prices. Ironically, the cost of petrol is also a factor because transportation is very much in the mix.

The respected global agriculture and food-industry research firm, Informa Economics, says a study based on 20 years of price data shows that corn prices have minimal impact on the Consumer Price Index for food. Informa’s Chief Executive, Bruce Scherr, told Reuters newsagency that the study debunked the concept that ethanol expansion was the underlying and main significant reason for food price increases.

“We’re not saying that corn prices are cheap, that ethanol hasn’t helped underpin the growth in the corn economy,” he said. “What we are saying is that to blame corn and corn-based ethanol for all of the inflation associated with food and food prices is to grossly under-consider all the other forces at work.”

According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, for every dollar an American consumer spends on food, only 19 cents goes to a farmer. The balance – 81 cents – goes to labour, fuels, transportation, packaging and other non-farm costs.

The Danish enzyme manufacturing company Novozymes, which runs its Australian operations out of Sydney, buys into the fuel v food debate in an issue of its industry magazine, BioTimes. Novozymes analyst Thomas Odgaard says the issue of food scarcity is a highly complex one.

Enough to feed the world
“Hunger is essentially a matter of income distribution,” he says. “Global food production is more than enough to feed the world population. Most of the world’s 800 million undernourished people live in rural areas, and are dependent on agriculture. The increased demand for agricultural products may allow them to sell their crops at a decent price. “These people have been hurt by decades of declining agricultural prices – a trend which has apparently stopped now.

“The increasing price of food around the world has also been blamed on biofuel. But increased use of biofuels is only part of the explanation. Increased demand for food, especially in India and China, and poor global harvests are other important factors. Further, it is important to remember that the costs of agricultural products only account for a small part of the commercial price of food. A 50 percent increase in agricultural price only results in a five percent increase in the cost of bread.”

The BioTimes magazine article goes on to say that food makes up a declining share of household budgets in Western countries because food is at its historically cheapest level and incomes have increased. Sixty years ago, an average British family spent one third of its income on food. Today, the figure has dropped to one-tenth.

The food v fuel debate has created somewhat of a feeding frenzy in the American media. New York Times reporter Andrew Martin, writing in the San Francisco Chronicle, says: “For years, cheap food and feed were taken for granted in the United States. But now the price of some food is rising sharply, and from the corridors of Washington to the aisles of neighbourhood supermarkets, a blame alert is underway.

Critics not getting much traction
“Among the favourite targets is ethanol, especially for food manufacturers and livestock farmers who seethe at government mandates for ethanol production. The ethanol boom, they contend, is raising corn prices – driving up the cost of producing dairy products and meat, and causing farmers to plant so much corn as to crowd out other crops.”

But ethanol critics don’t appear to be getting much traction with their argument, especially in the halls of power. The U.S. Energy Bill signed into law by President Bush last December ramps up production of ethanol use to 36 billion gallons (142 billion litres) a year by 2022.

The non-profit Ethanol Across America organisation weighed into the debate by saying that after years of cheap corn, American farmers were finally seeing the fruits of their investment in the ethanol industry as corn prices have surged. It asked: “How would you like to work for 25 years and not get a raise? That’s what American corn farmers have experienced until now.”

In an issue brief produced as part of its education campaign, Ethanol Across America says in part that ethanol critics routinely overstate how much corn is actually consumed as human food.

“Less than 12 percent of the nation’s field corn is processed directly into human food products in the United States,” the publication says. “Corn syrup, sweeteners, starches and cereals are examples. Corn demand for the human food market has been flat over recent years. The majority of field corn is fed to livestock, exported or ethanol and its co-products.

Ethanol co-products overlooked
“Despite extensive media coverage about the potential for a significant increase in food prices due to corn demand for ethanol, statistics simply do not support this claim. The Chicago Tribune claimed that using corn for ethanol would raise the price of corn to such an extent that consumer meat prices would rise drastically, adding: ‘the conversion of corn into ethanol would destroy our meat industry.’

“That was in 1995. Ten years later, U.S. consumers continued to enjoy the most affordable and abundant food supply in the world – in spite of a surge in corn demand for ethanol production.”

The Ethanol Across America publication turned the spotlight on ethanol co-products to back up its argument.

“The important role of a co-product of ethanol production is often overlooked by ethanol critics. About one third of each corn kernel is converted to distillers grains – a high-protein feed for livestock. As the production of ethanol increases, so does the supply of this valuable feed source. Livestock nutritionists have documented that, when fed as part of a balanced ration, distillers grains often outperform a corn-dominated diet. Distillers grains have become an important nutritional resource for livestock producers, especially in beef and dairy production.”

John Reifsteck, an American corn and soybean farmer and board member of the Truth About Trade and Technology organisation, says the food v fuel debate is frustrating because it presents a false choice. “We don’t have to pick one or the other,” he says. “We can have both.

New reality is food and fuel
“Almost every day it is possible to read another story blaming ethanol for higher food prices or some other malady. Yes, using corn to make fuel will raise the price of corn. That is exactly why farmers have invested so heavily in ethanol production. Higher corn prices can raise the price of food, but consider there’s less than a dime’s worth of corn in a box of cereal or six-pack of cola. Affordable food is always a concern for the world’s poor, but political and social issues are a far greater problem than price.

“Cheap grain is not a solution to world hunger – even U.S. aid programs that give away food are routinely criticised for their effect on local agricultural production and economies.

The economic future of the United States relies on a dependable supply of energy. We can try to influence sovereign nations to continue to ship us petroleum, and hope the tankers can navigate our ports. That must be part of our national energy policy. But we can’t ignore the talented people who have made American agriculture so incredibly productive. They are one of our country’s greatest resources.

“They make it possible to sidestep the false choice of food or fuel and embrace the new reality of food and fuel.”
The last word comes from Bob Dinneen of the American Renewable Fuels Association. He told the Wall Street Journal in an interview: “The biofuels industry has been made a scapegoat for food price increases that are due to many factors, including higher oil prices and a growing overseas demand for grain.”

Ian Thomson can be reached at [phone]; 0409-827-387 or by email [e-mail]

The Catholic Church is Not against the Use of Biotechnology

The Catholic Church is Not against the Use of Biotechnology
in Agriculture But Simply Advocates Prudence and Regulation

By C.S. Prakash
AgBioView

Please see below the complete text of the statement on genetic engineering in agriculture from Cardinal Sin, the powerful Archbishop of Manila in Philippines. A recent news item from the Philippine Daily Inquirer (see below) has selectively quoted as saying that Cardinal Sin, is against the use of biotechnology in agriculture. Cardinal Sin is among the most influential of Roman Catholic Cardinals as he also chairs the most Vatican Committees, and were it not for his failing health, he was considered by many to become the first Asian Pope.

The statement below from Cardinal Sin shows that while he advocates caution in the use of biotechnology in agriculture, he readily acknowledges that science "is a significant expression of man's dominion over creation", and "A concrete case that needs examination is genetic engineering applied to agricultural products. Along with the noble desire to combat hunger, poverty and disease in developing and applying such technology, scientists have the task of protecting the rest of creation from all possible harms that ensue".

Statement from the Pope on November 11, 2000: "This is a principle to be remembered in agricultural production itself, whenever there is a question of its advance through the application of biotechnologies, which cannot be evaluated solely on the basis of immediate economic interests. They must be submitted beforehand to rigorous scientific and ethical examination, to prevent them from becoming disastrous for human health and the future of the earth." (See the complete text of Holy Father's speech below and an earlier statement from the Pontifical Academy).

It must be recognized here that biotechnologically-enhanced foods are the most tested food ever, and have been subjected to more scientific scrutiny than any food in the history. The regulatory process that oversees the safety of biotech products on a case-by-case basis, high consensus of the scientific community on the biosafety issues, and the history of the safe use of the biotechnology products overwhelming addresses the concerns expressed above.

I had detailed discussion with Bishop Jesse Varela and Rev. Father Noli Alparce of Sorsogon, Philippines (who provided me the pastoral statement that appears below); and both concur that biotechnology can help advance the food security in developing countries and also help in poverty alleviation. While both expressed some reservation against the dominant use of this technology by the private sector and also advocate prudence on biosafety issues, they advised me that the Catholic Church is not opposed to the use of biotechnology in agriculture and it clearly recognizes its potential benefits in impacting the humanity. Father Alparce, a highly recognized social activist in Philippines (an ex-journalist and political aide) addressed a gathering of agricultural experts on June 13 in Manila where he advocated the continued development of agricultural biotechnology to address the problems of poor farmers, and assured that therer was no incongruence in the use of this technology with the Church's beliefs.

One can thus see that overall the Church has a cautious but supportive position on agricultural biotechnology (despite the misquotes and 'out of context' quotes by the media reports and activists), and is the position what most agricultural scientists and policy makers embrace - move forward with the technology but with adequate safeguards.

I thank Mr. Miguel R. Unson of the Senate of the Philippines for his help in the transcription of the Cardinal Sin text. As the Pope's speech in November 2000 is also being selectively misquoted in the press, I reproduce below that speech along with an earlier Piero Morandini's analysis of the comments of the Holy Father (from Agbioview on Dec 2, 2000).

- C. S. Prakash

Biotechnology Focus Area

Islam and Biotechnology

Paper title: Islam and Biotechnology: With Special Reference to Genetically Modified Foods

Author: Mohd Safian, Yasmin Hanani

Institutional Affiliation: Lecturer, Faculty of Shari`ah and Law, Islamic University College of Malaysia

This paper was prepared for "Science and Religion: Global Perspectives", June 4-8, 2005, in Philadelphia, PA, USA, a program of the Metanexus Institute

Abstract:

This paper attempts to highlight and discover Islamic principles in legitimizing current scientific research and innovations related to Biotechnology. For instance, genetically modified food issues ignite a firestorm of world debate especially in Western countries.

GMF issues are debated globally as many claim that these foods have the potential for detrimental impacts on public health and the environment. Some biotech food producers have claimed their intellectual property rights over their food products and seeds for the technology they are licensing to farmers. For some Muslims and other God-conscious people, tampering with nature by implanting genes from one organism into another, which nature has not sanctioned through natural processes, and then claiming legal ownership over such GM products is considered to be intolerable. The ‘terminator gene’ introduced by GM food companies may lead to the possibility of monopoly and encroachment of the world agro-economics by western seed producing conglomerates.

This paper attempts to discover the Islamic perspectives regarding the said issue, the teaching of the Prophet and the Islamic guidelines with regards to biotechnology. The main source of hukm (legal rules) in Islam is al-Qur’an, al-hadith (tradition of the Prophet), consensus and analogy. However, if the problem is not covered textually, the principle of maslahah (public interest) may be applied onto the matter. This principle of maslahah is based on the principle of avoiding harm and promoting interest. However, there are many guidelines in applying this principle in order to prevent people from clinging on to it tenaciously in order to fulfill their own unlawful desire. Hence, this paper tries to highlight the Islamic constraints in pursuing biotechnology research based on the said Islamic Legal principles.

Biography:

Yasmin Hanani Mohd. Safian currently is a lecturer in The Faculty of Sharicah and Law, Islamic University College of Malaysia. She holds a B.A (Hons.) in Sharicah from El- Azhar University Egypt and M.A (in Islamic Studies) from the University of Birmingham. She teaches several courses in Sharicah such as History of Islamic Law, Islamic Commercial Law and Islamic Criminal Law. She has published articles related to Usul Fiqh (The principles of Islamic jurisprudence) and Islamic Business Transactions. Her husband, Amir Shaharuddin is also a lecturer in the same institution teaching Islamic Banking and Total Quality Management.

1.0 Introduction:

Tampering with nature, changing God's creation to create another 'invented' creation and finally claiming legal ownership over such products are some hot issues in biotechnology. The said issues have led to ethical and religious concerns. By using several undisputable primary sources of Islamic Legal Rules (hukm) namely al-Qur’an, al-hadith (the Prophet traditions) and a disputable tool that is the principle of masalih almursalah (public interest), the writer tries to shed light into the advancement of biotechnology with special reference to the genetically modified foods. Therefore, in order to highlight the Islamic perspective regarding genetically modified foods (GMF), this paper is divided into three parts. The first part discusses the issues that ignite firestorm among public pertaining to food technology. The second part highlights several provisions from al-Qur’an, al-hadith related to the said matters. Finally, the third part concentrates on the possibility of the application of principle of masalih al-mursalah to justify the necessity of changing God’s creation in GMF technology and justify the necessity of claiming legal ownership over such foods and products.

In Western countries, GM food issues are debated as hot as halal food issues in Muslim countries. The debated issues include the issue of the safety of GM food, the possible ill effects to the environment, changes of ecosystem and ethical issues. According to Brainyencyclopaedia (20/10/04), a genetically modified food is a food product containing some quantity of any genetically modified orgasm (GMO) as an ingredient. It also used interchangeably with genetically engineered food and genetically altered food. Genetic engineering is the process by which scientists combine the genes of dissimilar and unrelated species or manipulate the genes of existing species to change their characteristics, permanently altering their genetic codes and creating novel organisms.

The distinguish feature of GM as highlighted by Prof. E. Ann Clark (2004) is the process of forcible gene insertion. Genetic engineering differs from traditional breeding and allows biotechnology corporations to combine organisms that would never able to combine naturally, such as tomato and fish. Because of the imprecise nature of gene insertion, these crops and foods may pose significant risk to human health and the environment (National Association of State PIRGs As You Sow Foundation. 2003) In nature, we cannot cross a tomato with a fish as  nimals and plants have long been separate in evolution. However, there was a laboratory research that produced a "frost resistant" tomato by splicing into its genetic code a gene that protects a flounder from the cold (The Independent. 12 October 1999). This first transgenic plant is said to have been created in the early 80’s when a gene from a bacterium was spliced into a petunia. Subsequently oilseed rape has had a bay tree gene spliced into it, to improve its oil, and a potato has been given a disease-resistant chicken gene.

The first commercially grown genetically modified food crop was a tomato created by Calgene called the FlavrSavr (Brainyencyclopaedia. 2004) Calgene submitted it to the U.S Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for testing in 1992; following the FDA’s determination that the FlavrSavr, in fact, a tomato, did not constitute health hazard, and did not need to be labeled to indicate it was genetically modified, Calgene released it into the market 1994, where it met with little public comment. Genetically modified plant are already grown extensively particularly in the USA, South America and Canada. At the first stage, some of European countries banned the GM foods into their countries.

However, in September 2004, the European Commission has finally permitted the first genetically modified seeds for cultivation and sale across the EU. After several years, we can easily find food contains GM ingredients such as vegetarian cheese and GM tomato puree. Despite the approval of EU concerning GM seeds recently, the fear of GM food has led to the withdrawal of US Food Aid by some African countries such as Sudan and Angola. The Sudanese government for instance in May 2003 issued a memorandum requiring that all food aid brought to the country must be certified as free from GM ingredients. However, in March 2004 the USAID – the main supplier of aid for the World Food Programme announced that it would cut off food aid supplies to Sudan on the basis that USAID does not issue certificates confirming the GM status of its food aid. Consequently, the USA is accused of manipulating the humanitarian principles of food aid to further its political and economical objectives. African countries are facing dilemma; accepting GM food aid or letting the populations go hungry.

The potential benefits of GM are believed could bring a new dawn in agriculture and food production. GM foods offer a way to quickly improve crop characteristics; draught or the local pests resistance, herbicide tolerance (scope.educ.Washington.edu 30/10/2004), crops that give higher yields; or fish or livestock that grow bigger and feed more people like salmon fish with three times more growth; or GM crops that incorporated vaccines to prevent prevalent diseases (Biotechinfo, 19/10/04). Through new innovation, healthier foods can be produced which incorporate extra nutrients or vitamins.

Biotech conglomerates such as Monsanto1 claims GM food and GM crops are crucial in order to feed and to provide balanced nutrients to the chronically hungry people especially in the third world countries (Monsanto 29/10/2004). There are more 842 million people across the world are hungry and remain chronically undernourished. Bo Lonnerdal (2003) in his article has contended that the GM technology can combat the lack of deficiencies of iron and zinc. The said biotechnology can improve trace element nutrition of staple foods such as cereal and legumes. He further stresses that this way may be achieved by introduction of genes that code for trace-element binding proteins, over expression of storage proteins already present and/or increased expressions of proteins that are responsible for trace element uptake into plants. However there is still a major concern especially for Muslims when the researchers tend to use human breast milk to improve the ion content of rice due to the fact that human lactoferrin binds specifically to receptors in the human small intestine.

On the other hand, the development of GM crops also brings a great benefit to the environment. The GM technology enhances conservation of soil, water and energy that are three critical and endangered components of the ecosystem. The efficiency in land use can save the rainforest, reduce the pollution emission and save precious habitats from exploitations. Furthermore, the crop yield in the farmland could be tripled and could increase profit margin per acre (Saeed A. Khan, 2003). Meanwhile for crops, the GM technology can reduce the maturation time and reduce reliance on pesticides and herbicides, which damage the environment.

2.0 Issues on GM Food:

2.1 Health issues and food safety:

The safety of GM foods is still in a grey area. Until nowadays, no guarantees as to long term safety of GM foods and we cannot predict how human health will be affected over a long time period. However, the Food Safety Authority of Ireland (FSAI) has subjected GM foods to an extensive range of analytical tests for food safety including chemical analysis, allergen city tests, evaluation of nutritional composition and others. A report by the scientific council of the American Medical Association also argues that there is no long term-health effects have been detected from the use of transgenic crops and genetically modified food. These two reports conclude that GM foods are “substantially equivalent” to their conventional counterparts.

On the other hand, the alternative argument put forward by anti-GM lobbyists is that GM is still new that the full effects on human health have not yet been tested adequately. This due to the fact that the reports also highlight some risks that may occur from the biotechnology engineering. There may be health risks from allergic reactions to GM food or from the bacteria and viruses used to transfer genes from one organism to another. Someone with a peanut allergy could have a fatal reaction to a plant engineered to carry a peanut protein. Problems could also arise if biotech companies transferred traits from antibiotics into crops. The anti GM groups also view that funding for truly independent research at many university and research faculties and institutes compares unfavorably to the billions of dollars spent by the companies who want to sell GM foods and crops.

However, the other argument that we should bear in our mind is that humans have practiced genetic modification since we first domesticated animals and plants over 8,000 years ago. The alternative argument is that in the past all modification and crossbreeding has happened within nature. Our predecessors never crossed the genes of different species from a plant to an animal or fish. There is also a hadith indicating that the Arabs also crossbreed the date’s plants. Nowadays people can take a gene that protects the flounder fish from cold, add it to genetic code of a tomato and make transgenic frost resistant tomato.

2.2 Intellectual property rights:

Monsanto introduces a technology called terminator into food crops, which produced plants that grew sterile seeds. Monsanto claimed this was necessary to protect their intellectual property rights, since they were licensing the technology to farmers.

However, public outcry about the undue influence that the terminator gene would give to nsanto, particularly in less developed nations where seed saving is more common, led to its withdrawal.Not only Monsanto, any other GM food producer have already developed seeds that will only produce one yield of crops that will make farmer dependent on such companies. These farmers, especially from developing countries are required to purchase more seeds from foreign companies that will make they lose their autonomy and become dependent farmers. Consequently, the monopoly of the world agro-economics will be on the hand of the GM companies.

The claiming of legal ownership over GM plant has led to ethical concerns and public confusions. Intellectual property rights are in fact temporary rights of exclusive exploitation of an idea and not ownership rights to the product that emerges from it (OECD Observer, 23 October 2004). Many scientists argue that the restraining of biotechnology programmes through the Intellectual Property Right legislation has led many biotech research at hold and they really hope that the ethical based system may have the virtue of open ended and adaptable to new circumstances as knowledge about GM foods improve.

2.3 Ecological Impact:

Apart from the great benefit GM technology could bring, there is still a worry that GM plants could potentially lead to detrimental consequences to the environment as warned by the report of the American Medical Association. One of the greatest fears in regard to GM crops and food is that, once growing in our fields, these plants might pass pollen or seeds to native plants that could then take on the engineered traits. There have been some instances where insects and plants in and around GM crops have shown some damage. For example, the Soil Association in the UK points out that the death rate of lacewing insects was doubled when they were fed on plant eating- larvae raised on GM maize. Likewise, they point to damage to bees feeding of GM rapeseed genetically modified to produce natural insecticide intended to kill only caterpillars and beetles. To counter this potential problem, boundaries are placed around GM crops. Also, the much misunderstood ‘terminator genes’ has been produced to stop what is called the ‘gene flow’ or spread genes from plant to plant and into the wild. Research is ongoing into the halting of the ‘gene flow’. Plants, which are modified by inserting a gene which renders all seed  roduced infertile has been much criticized as an attempt to corner the seed market. During the last decade, more than 40 varieties of transgenic crops have been approved for use in the USA, most of them genetically modified to produce a pesticide called Bacillus thuringiensis, or Bt. The Bt toxin attacks pests like the European corn borer, but Laboratory studies suggest it may also be dangerous to the larvae of the monarch butterfly and other butterflies and moths.

2.4 Changing God’s creation and tampering with nature:

Apart from environment effects, the GM food producers, farmers and manufacturers are accused of changing natural process and tampering with nature when cattle were changed from erbivores to cannibal carnivores. Previously, during winter when the grass is thin and weak, soybean was used to feed the cattle, as they need protein supplement. However, some farmers have used remnants of dead cattle instead of soybean as to save cost. Consequently, the BSE (bovine spongiform encephalopathy) or mad cow disease that attacked the UK nation widely was claimed as the detrimental effect of the step of changing natural process.

Further more, as Saeed A. Khan argues that the positive consequences of GM technology are also counterbalanced with an equally pernicious cost. The danger of overproduction of crops may be irresistible. Although the crops that are resistance to disease and pests have constructive value, the disruption to the balance of the ecosystem is unclear as illustrated in the reports made by American Medical Association.

3.0 Al-Qur’an and Al-hadith views regarding GM foods and products:

3.1 Al-Qur’an and Al-hadith points of views regarding food intake:

As regard to the potential risks associated with GM food, Al-Qur'an has led several rules on food intake. Allah The Almighty said: “Eat of the things which God hath provided for you, lawful and good: But fear God, in Whom ye believe” (Al-Qur'an. Al-Ma'idah 5: 88).

What we can deduce from this ayat is that Allah orders us not only eating halal food, but good food as well. Thus, based from this ayat (Quranic verse), we should not only avoid haram (illegal) foods and drinks such as non slaughtered animals and liquor, also we should refrain ourselves from taking regularly any foods and drinks that contain chemical substances, preservatives, additives or colouring agent that may harm our bodies. However, there is no scientific evidence that GM foods are harmful to human health. There are many research and experiments conducted that GM foods are as safe as their conventional counterparts. Furthermore, many scientists argue that GM food on our plates have been tested far more thoroughly than any other conventional foods. For instance, a research conducted by Harry Kuiper of the State Institute for Quality Control of Agricultural Products in Wageningen, Netherlands, had shown that GM tomatoes were not harmful to rats, conversely they would have been poisoned by the basic nutrients in the tomato such as potassium (Librarythinkquest. 19 October 2004). As a result all myths that associating GM food and health hazard has yet proven scientifically.

However, for Muslims, God has created and fashioned every living things in the best form and man as a viceroy or khalifatullah (al-Qur`an 2:30) is assigned to manage and utilize them for living purposes in the best way and order. As a viceroy, man has been given responsibility on this earth and he is accountable on what he has done before God in the Hereafter. This is the crucial guideline for any human being to live in this world, utilize the entire natural resources for the sake of living things and ensure the best for nature, as it will become legacy for the future generation. The very well known hadith in the Sahih al Bukhari is that: "Everyone of you is a guardian and is responsible for his charges. The ruler who has authority over people, is a guardian and is responsible for them" (Hadith. Al-Bukhari. Kitab al-Nikah: Juz` 81: #16)2 Islam teaches its believer to be kind to nature and do not betray the responsibility and the trust that have been given to them.

As stated earlier, man as a khalifatullah has his own responsibilities towards nature. Animals, nature, trees and all creatures in this world are created to assist people living easily and assist them to become good servants of Allah. Everything people do, they have to submit it to God. Therefore, human and nature are two important elements in this world in order to fulfill the prophet's mission that is tawhidullah. A prominent Muslim scholar, Seyyed Hossein Nasr in his book, Man and Nature (1968) has stressed that the relationship between man and nature should be as the same as the relation between man and wife. Each of them has their own responsibilities towards each other. Unfortunately, for modern man, nature has become like a prostitute- to be benefited from without any sense of obligation and responsibility towards her. This domination over nature without rendering it back for the purpose of `ibadah (act of worship) to God has led to massive disaster.

3.2 Al-Qur’an and Al-hadith points of views regarding the issue of changing God's creation: Islam, at the first stage regards attempt to modify living things a sin as stated in the Al Qur’an: “God did curse him, but he said: “I will take of Your servants a portion marked off, I will mislead them, and I will create in them false desires, I will order them to slit the ears of cattle, and to deface the (fair) nature created by God.” Whoever forsaking God, takes Satan for a friend, hath a surety suffered a loss that is manifest” (Al-Qur’an. An- Nisa’ 4:119)3 This ayat is a warning from Allah that any means to unnecessary change of the Creation of Allah will make one subject to the curse of Allah and his Prophet. However, if the change falls under the category of essential type (daruriyyat), so such a change and modification is permissible. For instance, if the genetic engineering is conducted to prevent from harm i.e to reduce reliance on pesticides and herbicides, which damage the environment, such an experiment is permissible and is in line with the principle of Shari`ah that is promoting welfare and preventing from harm (jalb al-masalih wa dar’ almafasid). Further more, in order to create better livestock and crop, Islam does encourage gene modification that has been used for centuries using natural methods involving organisms of the same species. There is a hadith where the Prophet S.A.W approved the action of 2Al-Bukhari. Sahih Al-Bukhari. (trans). Muhammad Muhsin Khan. 1984. The Translation of The Meaning of Sahih Al-Bukhari. New Delhi: Kitab Bhavan. Vol. 7. p. 82

3 The Quranic translation in this writing is based on `Abdullah Yusuf Ali. 2000. The Holy Qur`an, Original

Arabic Text with English Translation & Selected Commentaries. Kuala Lumpur: Saba Islamic Media.

crossbreeding of date plant by the Arab in his saying: "You are more knowledgeable in your worldly affairs" (Hadith. Muslim. Kitab Al-Fada'il: Bab 39: #6082). However, according to this hadith that was narrated by Anas, at the first stage, when the Prophet saw the Arab was making crossbreeding into the dates plants, he prohibited them by saying that it is better if they let the dates grow naturally. However, when the Arabs let the dates grow naturally as suggested by the Prophet, the yield of the plant was not as satisfactory as before and then the Prophet said: "You are more knowledgeable in your worldly affairs". In the same hadith, the prophet mentioned that he was the best person to refer to in the religious matters, nevertheless when it comes into the worldly affairs, he admitted that the people knew better than him. This is evident that Islam and Shari`ah do not put strict limitation in worldly affairs provided they are used, managed and utilized for the benefit of the common people and vice versa. That means it is not only for good

of certain groups of people. On the other hand, observing the said hadith, it is evident that at the first stage the Prophet prefers we preserve and monopolize living things in their natural ways. However, if there is a need to modify them in natural ways such as crossbreeding or what so ever for the good of human life, he did recognize such an action.

Dr. Wahbah Zuhaili in his great masterpiece, Al-Fiqh Al-Islami wa 'Adillatuh has further elaborated this hadith by saying that any worldly affairs that are not textually covered in the Holy Book of al-Qur'an nor hadith is upon the discretion of human being provided it will not violate the principle of Shari`ah that is promoting interests, avoiding hardship and for the good of people. The writer is of the view that the principle of masalih mursalah may be applicable here to justify the necessity of changing God’s creation in GM technology and to justify the necessity of claiming legal ownership over such foods and products.

4.0 The application of masalih mursalah in validating or invalidating GM food technology:

Another tool in Islamic Law that can be applied to justify the validity of GM foods is masalih mursalah. Majority of Muslim jurists unanimously agree that al-Qur'an, hadith, ijma' (consensus) and qiyas (analogy) are the prime sources of law in Islamic jurispurdence. However, there are disputes among jurists on the usage of any other sources of law and masalih mursalah is one of them. The Maliki School of law accepted it as its founder Imam Malik regards "public interest" is a valid source of juridical decision. Other schools of law such as Hanbali and Hanafi also accept this principle of deriving hukm (legal rules) as well as the Shafii School of law though the latter school basically discards this principle in its original meaning. This paper is not trying to discuss the disputes among Muslim scholars on this issue extensively rather it is merely

highlighting an epigrammatic view on it. The more important point that is highlighted in this section is the guidelines set up by Muslim scholars in adapting the mentioned principle by which we can justify the necessities of genetically modified foods and the issues of intellectual property rights.

4.1 Muslim scholars’ point of view regarding the application of masalih mursalah in legitimizing worldly affairs: Many scholars view that its name masalih or maslahah (interest) comes together with the word mursalah (the unrestricted public interest) as it is not mentioned specifically in Qur'an neither in Sunnah (Abdul Karim Zaidan,1998; Wahbah Zuhaili, 1998). Actually, there are three types of maslahah; maslahah mu`tabarah (accredited maslahah), maslahah mulghah discredited maslahah) and masalih mursalah (unrestricted public interest). Maslahah  u`tabarah refers to interests recognized by as-shari` (the law maker) as the purpose of shari`ah is to protect five specific interests; to protect the religion (din), property (mal), life (nafs), reason (`aql) and lineage (nasb). Preserving these interests is vital and is considered as essential in human life. Maslahah mulghah refers to any unrecognized maslahah by the shar`i`. Meaning that certain hukm is applied regardless of certain personnel maslahah such as the compensation one has to pay when committed unlawful action. In this situation, one's personnel interest will not be taken

into consideration for instance in hudud cases. Maslahah mursalah as mentioned above refers to any interest, which is not mentioned in the al-Qur'an or hadith. Since these interests have not been covered textually, therefore are considered mursal i.e., set loose from such texts. This is the principle that may be adopted to justify the necessities of changing justify the necessities of changing God’s creation in GM technology and justify the necessities of claiming legal ownership over such foods and products. Having discovered the three types of maslahah, it seems crucial to define the meaning of masalih mursalah as our centre of discussion. Maslahah literally means interest, welfare, advantage, wellbeing. Karim Zaidan (1998) defines it as to promote and bring welfare and to avoid and prevent harm (jalbu al-masalih wa dar' al-mafasid).  Meanwhile, al- Ghazali in his book Mustasfa as cited by Wahbah Zuhaili (1998) advocates that maslahah does not merely carry this meaning nonetheless the most important thing is to preserve

five objectives of the shari`ah namely the religion (din), property (mal), life (nafs), reason (`aql) and lineage (nasb). Meaning that any means to protect any one of the five objectives of shari`ah will be deemed as a maslahah in Islam.

Other scholars define this principle as public welfare as cited by Abdurrahman I. Doi (1984).  his principle together with other principles like istishab and istihsan go back in their origin to  eason; to the study of the reasons behind the rules, to the fulfillment of the interests of the  people in  heir social life and to abiding as closely as possible with absolute good and the ictates of justice and equity (S. Mahmassani, 2000). However, the study of the reasons behind the rules can only be applied to transaction matters and not to religious observances (ta`abudiyyah). Therefore, any action which benefits people is considered legal and lawful. To some extent, majority of Muslim jurists agree that the governing measure of all that lawful or unlawful thing or action is the benefit or the harm which stems from it (Muhammad Abu Zahrah, 2001; S.Mahmassani, 2000). This is the argument which the scholars of Maliki school of law use in advocating this principle.

On the other hand, many scholars from Shafii School of law do not accept the masalih mursalah as one of the sources in Islamic legal rules due to the fact that interest varies according to different degree of people, time and place. Furthermore, as maslahah or interest is a subjective matter, it will open a back door to the exploitation of this principle when people simply cling on it tenaciously to fulfill their unlawful desire. Generally speaking, we can conclude that scholars from Shafii School of law reject maslahah or interest as a determining factor in legal ruling. However, al-Ghazali in his book al- Mustasfa as cited by Wahbah Zuhaili (1998) only sanctioned the application if the maslahah to be served was absolutely essential. He also put strict guidelines in accepting this principle as a method of deriving hukm in Islam. 4.2 Guidelines in adopting the principle of masalih mursalah as a source of hukm: Many Muslim scholars have set up guidelines and attached several conditions that should be fulfilled in applying this principle in transaction matters, which can be concluded as; First: the interest should be in harmony with the spirit of the shari`ah or in other words it should be in line with the general objectives of the shari`ah. Furthermore, it should not be in conflict with any of its accepted sources. Second: the interest involved in the case should be accepted by majority of scholars and the interest must be reasonable, rational, and logical.Third: the application of this principle is to avoid hardships and difficulties. Fourth: There are three types of maslahah according to the priorities; daruriyat, hajiyat and tahsinat. The interest should be one of the essential (daruriyat) or the necessary (hajiyat) and not of the perfectionist (luxury, tahsinat) type. Daruriyat includes the preservation of religion, property, life, reason and lineage as mentioned earlier.

Meanwhile, the necessary type or hajiyat appertains to the betterment of living. People depend on this maslahah as it will release people from hardship. For example; in the case of concession granted to travelers to break the fast during the daytime of Ramadan. On the other hand, the perfectionist type (tahsinat) refers to "decoration and improvement" which make life more cheerful and comfortable. Fifth: Other ulama' from Maliki and Hanbali Schools of Law put a condition (Wahbah Zuhaili, 1998) that the application of this principle should be based on the objective to promote the welfare and the interest of the public and not only the interest of certain

group of people or individuals. This is due to the fact that the aim of shari`ah is to protect the interest of the whole mankind. Fifth: the case under review should be one pertaining to matters of transactions so that interest involved in it may be construed upon grounds of reason. The case should not be one relating to religious observances (Mahmassani 1983). It is clear to us that the guidelines in the application of the principle of masalih mursalah to legitimize an action is an evidence that our previous Muslim scholars had taken serious effort to determine that this principle cannot be simply violated by whatever means. Examining the reasons behind why the manufacturers tend to modified gene as they claim to feed hunger people seem to be a mere political and economical basis. Since they are licensing the technology to the farmers through their 'terminator gene' technology, it will make farmers especially in less developed countries loss their autonomy and consequently become dependent to such GM companies. The world agro economic will at last be on the hands of GM food producers. Even though the GM companies have their own intellectual property rights (IPR) over the foods, plants and seeds, this is truly violated the Shari`ah principle that we should help the need and the hunger without any 11

profit proposes behind. Via GM food technology, the genes can be manipulated to enable staple crops to grow in marginal condition, but the farmers still have to purchase the seeds from the conglomerates. Further more, though nearly 800 million people go to bed hungry every night as stated by World Bank Vice President for Sustainable Development, Ian Johnson but there is still a strong argument that the problem of starvation in African countries is mainly caused by inefficient domestic management of food and political reasons rather than scarcity of it! Furthermore, the GM technology in Islam is permissible under the principle of maslahah provided that the maslahah is to serve the interest of the public rather to serve the interest of certain group of people. Examining the reasons why some manufacturers license the technology to farmers, it is clear that it is only to protect their own interest. Even though they do have right over their technology that recognized by Islam, but there is still a fear of the terminator gene will be passed to native plants, hence making them cannot grow naturally. Therefore, this terminator gene contradicts the Shari`ah principle.

.

5.0 Concluding Remarks:

To conclude, many experiments had shown that GM food is safe for consumption and the technology does not contradict Islamic tenets on food intake. Furthermore, GM food has been altered genetically in order to improve trace element nutrients and is well balanced. However, there is a strong need for labeling GM food products as the consumer's trust should not be abused especially when the processing involves inserting animal genes for vegetarians and pig genes for Jews and Muslims. Furthermore, there is still a major concern considering the fact that mixing genes from radically different organisms is ethically wrong. Therefore the manufacturer should be more responsible and not let the customers end up eating food without knowing it contain GM ingredients.It is important to note that Islam imposes no restrictions on biotechnology research, rather considers it as an `ibadah (act of worship) and a means of better living even though some religions might render the technology of GM food as an acceptable intervention in God's creation or so called as 'playing God'. However, Islam advocates that the door of scientific research should not be left wide open without proper Shari`ah examination and all possible precautions should be taken to ensure public interests are protected and the research is in line with the Shari`ah.

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